Academic publishing is a sub-field of publishing that distributes academic research and scholarships. Most academic works are published in academic journals, books or thesis forms. Part of academic written results that are not officially published but only printed or posted on the Internet are often called "gray literature". Most scientific and scientific journals, and many academic and scientific books, though not all, are based on some form of peer review or editorial editor to qualify text for publication. The standards and quality selectivity of peer reviews vary greatly from journal to journal, publisher to publisher, and field to field.
Most established academic disciplines have their own journals and other outlets for publication, although many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish works from different fields or subfields. There is a tendency for existing journals to be divided into specific sections because the field itself becomes more specialized. Along with variations in reviews and publication procedures, the type of publication received as a contribution to knowledge or research differs greatly between fields and subfields.
Academic publishing is undergoing major changes, as it makes the transition from print to electronic format. The business model differs in the electronic environment. Since the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, especially journals, has been very common. Currently, an important trend, especially related to journals in science, is open access via the Internet. In open access publishing, journal articles are available free to all on the web by publishers at the time of publication. Open access journals are often funded by authors who pay hundreds or thousands of dollars in publishing costs, thereby shifting the cost from readers to their researchers or funders, but some open access journals are funded directly. The Internet has facilitated open access archiving, where authors themselves make copies of their published articles available for free on the web. Some important results in mathematics have been published only on arXiv.
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History
The Journal des sÃÆ'§avans (later spelled Journal des savants ), founded by Denis de Sallo, is the earliest academic journal published in Europe. Its contents include famous male obituaries, church history, and legal reports. The first problem emerged as a twelve-page quarto pamphlet on Monday, January 5, 1665, shortly before the first appearance of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, on March 6, 1665.
At that time, the act of publishing an academic inquiry was controversial and widely laughed at. It's not at all unusual for new discoveries to be announced as anagrams, saving priorities for inventors, but unreadable for anyone not in the secret: both Isaac Newton and Leibniz use this approach. However, this method is not working properly. Robert K. Merton, a sociologist, found that 92% of cases of simultaneous discovery in the seventeenth century ended in disagreement. The number of disputes fell to 72% in the 18th century, 59% in the second half of the 19th century, and 33% in the first half of the 20th century. The decline in claims contested for priority in research findings can be credited to the increasing acceptance of paper publications in modern academic journals, with estimates showing that around 50 million journal articles have been published since the first appearance of the Royal Society's Philosophical Transactions on his unpopular belief that science can only move forward through the transparent and open exchange of ideas supported by experimental evidence.
Early scientific journals embraced several models: some were run by an individual who used editorial control over their content, often only publishing extracts from peer letters, while others using group decision-making processes, more in tune with modern peer studies. Not until the mid-20th century peer review became standard.
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Publisher and business aspects
In the 1960s and 1970s, commercial publishers began selectively acquiring "high quality" journals previously published by nonprofit academic societies. Due to the inelastic demand for these journals, commercial publishers lose little from the market when they raise prices significantly. Although there are more than 2,000 publishers, in 2013, five nonprofit companies (Reed Elsevier, Springer Science Business Media, Wiley-Blackwell, Taylor & Francis, and Sage) accounted for 50% of published articles. (Since 2013, Springer Science Business Media has been merged to form a larger company called Springer Nature.) Available data show that these companies have high profit margins, especially compared to small issuers that are likely to operate with low margins. These factors have contributed to the "serial crisis" - from 1986 to 2005, the number of serial purchases increased by an average of 1.9% per year while the total expenditure on the series increased 7.6% per year.
Unlike most industries, in academic publishing, the two most important inputs are "virtually free". This is an article and peer review process. Publishers argue that they add value to the publishing process through support to peer review groups, including benefits, as well as through the preparation of letters, printing, and web publishing. Investment analysts, however, have been skeptical of the value added by nonprofit publishers, as exemplified by the Deutsche Bank 2005 analysis which states that "we believe publishers add relatively little value to the publishing process... We just observe that if the process is really complicated , expensive, and value-added because publishers are protesting against it, a 40% margin will not be available. "
Crisis
The crisis in academic publishing is "widely perceived"; The crisis is clearly associated with the combined pressure of budget cuts at universities and increased costs for journals (serial crises). The university budget cuts have reduced the library budget and reduced subsidies for university-affiliated publishers. The humanities have been heavily influenced by pressure on university publishers, who are less able to publish monographs when libraries can not afford them. For example, ARL found that in "1986, libraries spent 44% of their budgets in books compared with 56% in journals, twelve years later, that ratio has been skewed to 28% and 72%." Meanwhile, monographs are increasingly expected for tenure in the humanities. The Modern Language Association has expressed the hope that electronic publishing will solve this problem.
In 2009 and 2010, surveys and reports found that libraries faced sustained budget cuts, with one survey in 2009 finding that one-third of libraries cut their budgets by 5% or more.
Publishing update of academic journals
Some models are being investigated like open publication models or adding community-oriented features. It is also considered that "Online scientific interaction outside the traditional journal room becomes increasingly important for academic communication". In addition, experts suggest measures to make the publication process more efficient in disseminating new and important findings by evaluating the feasibility of publication on the basis of the significance and novelty of the research findings.
Scientific paper
In academic publishing, papers are academic works that are usually published in academic journals. It contains original research results or reviews of existing results. Such papers, also called articles, will only be considered valid if a peer review process by one or more referees (who are academics in the same field) who check that the content of the paper is suitable for publication in the journal. Papers may experience a series of reviews, revisions, and re-submissions before they are finally accepted or rejected for publication. This process usually takes several months. Furthermore, there is often a delay of months (or in some subjects, more than one year) before the accepted text appears. This is especially true for most popular journals where the number of articles received often exceeds the amount of space to print. Due to this, many academics create their own archives of pre-printed print copies of their papers for free download from their personal websites or agencies.
Some journals, especially newer ones, are now published in electronic form only. Paper journals are now generally available in electronic form as well, both for individual customers, and for libraries. Almost always this electronic version is available to customers immediately after the publication of the paper version, or even before; sometimes they are also available to non-customers, either immediately (by open access journal) or after embargoes anywhere from two to twenty-four months or more, to protect against loss of subscriptions. Journals that have this delayed availability are sometimes called delayed access open journals. Ellison has reported that in economics, a dramatic increase in the opportunity to publish online results has led to a decline in the use of articles reviewed by colleagues.
Pages categories
An academic paper usually includes certain categories such as:
- Research paper
- Case report or case series
- Position paper
- Review Survey articles or papers
- Specification paper
- Technical paper
Note: Legal review is a generic term for legal scholarships journals in the United States, often operating with rules that are radically different from most other academic journals.
Peer reviews
Peer review is the central concept for most academic publishing; other scholars in the field must find a job high enough in quality to deserve publication. The secondary benefit of this process is indirect guard against plagiarism because the reviewer is usually familiar with the source consulted by the author (s). The origins of regular peer review for filing dates to 1752 when the Royal Society of London took over the official responsibility for the Philosophical Transactions. However, there are some previous examples.
Although most editors agree that the system is critical to quality control in terms of rejecting low-quality jobs, there are examples of important results rejected by one journal before being taken to another. Rena Steinzor writes:
Perhaps the most notorious peer review failure is its inability to ensure high-quality job identification. A list of important scientific papers initially rejected by peer-reviewed journals goes back at least as far as Philosophical Transaction's 1796 editor dismisses Edward Jenner's account of the first vaccination against smallpox.
"Confirmation confirmation" is an unconscious tendency to receive reports that support the viewer's view and minimize what does not. Experimental studies indicate the problem exists in the peer review.
Publishing process
The academic publishing process, which begins when the author submits the manuscript to the publisher, is divided into two distinct phases: peer review and production.
The peer review process is governed by the journal editor and complete when the article content, together with the associated images or images, is accepted for publication. Peer review processes are increasingly managed online, through the use of proprietary systems, commercial software packages, or open source and free software. A manuscript has one or more reviews; after each round, the article authors alter their submissions in accordance with reviewers' comments; this process is repeated until the editor is satisfied and the job is received.
The production process, controlled by editors or production publishers, then takes articles through editing of copies, composing letters, inclusion in special editions of journals, then online printing and publications. Editing academic copy seeks to ensure that an article fits the journal home style, that all references and labeling are correct, and that the text is consistent and legible; often this work involves substantive editing and negotiation with the author. Because the work of academic copy editors can overlap with the author's editors, editors employed by journal publishers often refer to themselves as "script editors".
In most of the 20th century, such articles were photographed for printing into processes and journals, and this stage was known as a camera-ready copy. With modern digital submission in formats like PDF, this shooting step is no longer needed, although the term is still sometimes used.
The author will review and correct the evidence at one or more stages in the production process. The historically labor-intensive cycle of proof correction as handwritten commentaries by writers and editors is manually transcribed by the reader of evidence to a clean version of the evidence. In the early 21st century, this process was simplified by the introduction of e-annotations in Microsoft Word, Adobe Acrobat, and other programs, but it was still a time-consuming and error-prone process. The full automation of evidence correction cycles is only possible with the advent of online collaborative writing platforms, such as Authorea, Google Docs, and more, where remote services oversee the interaction of several authors' edits and describe them as explicit, actionable historical events.
Quote
Academic authors cite sources they use, to support their statements and arguments and to help readers discover more information about the subject. It also rewards the authors whose work they use and helps avoid plagiarism.
Each scientific journal uses a special format for citations (also known as references). Among the most commonly used formats in research papers are WHAT, CMS, and MLA styles.
The American Psychological Association (APA) style is often used in the social sciences. Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) is used in business, communications, economics, and social sciences. The CMS style uses footnotes at the bottom of the page to help readers find the source. The Modern Language Style Association (MLA) is widely used in the humanities.
Publish according to discipline
Nature Sciences
The scientific, technical, and medical literature (STM) is a large industry that generates $ 23.5 billion in revenues; $ 9.4 billion of that specifically from the publication of an English-language scientific journal. Most of the scientific research was originally published in scientific journals and considered to be the primary source. Technical reports, for small research results and engineering and design work (including computer software), complement the primary literature. Secondary sources in science include articles in the review journals (which provide synthesis of research articles on a topic to highlight progress and a new line of research), and books for large projects, broad arguments, or article compilations. Tertiary sources may include encyclopedias and similar works aimed at broad public consumption or academic libraries.
Partial exceptions to the practice of scientific publication exist in many fields of applied science, particularly US computer science research. The same prestigious publication sites in US computer science are some academic conferences. The reasons for this departure include a large number of such conferences, the rapid pace of research progress, and the support of the computer science professional community for distribution and archiving of conference processes.
Social science
Publishing in the social sciences is very different in many fields. Some areas, such as economics, may have "hard" or highly quantitative standards for publication, just like natural science. Others, such as anthropology or sociology, emphasize fieldwork and report on direct observation and quantitative work. Some areas of social science, such as public health or demography, have significant shared interests with professions such as law and medicine, and scholars in this field often also publish professional magazines.
Humanities
Publishing in the humanities is essentially similar to publishing elsewhere in the academy; journals, from the most common to the very specialized, available, and the university publishers release many new humanities books each year. The arrival of online publishing opportunities has radically altered the field economy and controversial future forms. Unlike science, where timeliness is so important, the publication of humanities often takes years to write and years to publish. Unlike science, research is most often an individual process and is rarely supported by large grants. Journals rarely generate profits and are usually run by university departments.
The following describes the situation in the United States. In many areas, such as literature and history, some published articles are usually required for first land tenure work, and published or future books are now often required before the tenure. Some critics complain that this de facto system has emerged without thinking of the consequences; they claim that the predictable outcome is the publication of a lot of bad work, as well as unreasonable demands at the time of the research of young scientists who have been limited. To make matters worse, the circulation of many humanities journals in the 1990s declined to an almost untenable level, as many libraries canceled subscriptions, resulting in fewer and fewer peer-reviewed outlets for publication; and many of the first books of humaniora professors sell only a few hundred copies, which often do not pay for their printing costs. Some scholars call for the publication of several thousand dollars of publication to be associated with each student scholarship or lease a new lease line, to ease the financial pressures on the journal.
Open access journal
The alternative to the journal publishing subscription model is the open access journal model, which usually involves the cost of publications paid by the author. Prestige journals usually cost a few thousand dollars. Oxford University Press, with more than 300 journals, has fees ranging from Ã,  £ 1000-Ã, £ 2500, with 50% to 100% discount for authors from developing countries. Wiley Blackwell has 700 journals available, and they charge a flat $ 300,000 open access fee. Springer, with more than 2600 journals, charges $ 3000 or EUR 2200 (excluding VAT).
The online distribution of individual articles and academic journals then takes place at no cost to readers and libraries. Most open access journals remove all financial, technical, and legal barriers that limit access to academic material to paying customers. The Public Library of Science and BioMed Central is a prominent example of this model.
Open access has been criticized for quality reasons, as the desire to maximize publishing costs may lead to some journals to relax peer review standards. This may be criticized on a financial basis as well because the required publication costs have proven to be higher than originally anticipated. Advocates of open access generally reply that since open access is largely based on peer reviews as traditional publishing, the quality should be the same (recognizing that traditional and open access journals have a quality range). It has also been argued that good science conducted by academic institutions unable to pay for open access may not be published at all, but most open access journals allow the waiver of financial difficulties or authors in underdeveloped countries. However, all authors have the option to archive their articles in their institutional repositories to get them to open access, whether they publish them in the journal or not.
If they publish in the Hybrid open access journal, the authors pay the journal subscription fee fees to make their individual article access open. Other articles in the hybrid journal are made after the delay or remain available only by subscription. Most traditional publishers (including Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford University Press, and Springer Science Business Media) have introduced such hybrid options, and many more follow. Open access support indicates that the measures by the publisher of the company illustrate that open access, or a mix of open access and traditional publishing, can be financially viable, and evidence for such effects emerges. A small percentage of authors of open hybrid access journals using open access options can, however, be small. It is also unclear whether this is practical in the field outside of science, where there is far less external funding availability. In 2006, several funding agencies, including the Wellcome Trust and some divisions of the Research Council in the United Kingdom announced the availability of additional funds for their grant recipients for the costs of publication of the open access journal.
In May 2016, the Council of the European Union agreed that by 2020 all scientific publications as a result of publicly funded research should be freely available. It should also be able to optimally reuse the research data. To achieve this, data must be accessible, unless there is a good reason not to do so, for example, intellectual property rights or security or privacy concerns.
Growth
In the last few decades there has been a growth in academic publishing in developing countries as they become more advanced in science and technology. Although most academic output and academic documents are produced in developed countries, the growth rates in these countries have stabilized and are much smaller than growth rates in some developing countries. The fastest rate of scientific output growth over the past two decades has been in the Middle East and Asia with Iran leading the 11-fold increase followed by the Republic of Korea, Turkey, Cyprus, China and Oman. In comparison, the only G8 country in the top 20 with the fastest performance increase is Italy, which is tenth and Canada ranked 13th globally.
In 2004, it was noted that the output of scientific papers originating from the European Union has a greater share of the world's total of 36.6 to 39.3 percent and from 32.8 to 37.5 percent of the "top one percent of scientific papers very quoted ". However, US output fell 52.3 to 49.4 percent of the world's total, and its share of the top one percent declined from 65.6 to 62.8 percent.
Iran, China, India, Brazil and South Africa are the only developing countries among the 31 countries that produced 97.5% of the most cited scientific articles in research published in 2004. The remaining 162 countries contribute less than 2, 5%. The Royal Society in its 2011 report states that in a section of British scientific research paper, the United States was first followed by China, Britain, Germany, Japan, France, and Canada. The report estimates that China will take over the United States before 2020, possibly in early 2013. China's scientific impact, as measured by other scientists citing papers published next year, is smaller though it is also increasing.
See also
References
Further reading
- Belcher, Wendy Laura. "Writing Your Journal Articles in Twelve Sundays: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success." ISBN: 9781412957014
- Best, Joel. "Following Money in the Landscape of Sociology Journals." The American Sociologist (2015): 1-16.
- Brienza, Casey (2012). "Opening the wrong gates? Academic spring and scientific publications in the humanities and social sciences". Publish quarterly research . 28 (3): 159-171. doi: 10.1007/s12109-012-9272-5.
- Culler, Jonathan, and Kevin Lamb. Is it hard? Ã,: academic writing in the public arena Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2003. ISBNÃ, 0-8047-4709-1
- Germano, William. Getting It Published, 2nd Edition: A Guide for Students and Who's Serious About Serious Books . ISBN 978-0-226-28853-6. Read one chapter.
- Greco, Albert N (2015). "Academic Librarian and Scholar Publishing Economy in the Twentieth Century: Portfolio Theory, Product Differentiation, Economic Rent, Perfect Price Discrimination, and Prestige Cost". Scholar Publishing Journal . 47 (1): 1-43. doi: 10.3138/jsp.47.1.01.
- Nelson, Cary, and Stephen Watt. "Scholarly Books" and "Peer Review" in Academic Keywords: Dictionary of Satan for Higher Education . ISBNÃ, 0-415-92203-8.
- Tenopir, Carol, and Donald King. "Toward an Electronic Journal: Reality for Librarians and Publishers SLA, 2000. ISBNÃ, 0-87111-507-7.
- Wellington, J. J. Getting published: a guide for lecturers and researchers (RoutledgeFalmer, 2003). ISBNÃ, 0-415-29847-4
- Yang, Rui. "Scientific publication, knowledge mobility, and internationalization of Chinese universities." in Tara Fenwick and Lesley Farrell, eds. Mobilization of educational knowledge and research: Politics, language, and responsibilities (2012): 185-167.
External links
- Scholar Publishing Journal
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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