Radio frequency identification ( RFID ) uses the electromagnetic field to automatically identify and track the tags attached to the object. The tags contain information that is stored electronically. Passive tags collect energy from radio waves interrogating RFID readers nearby. Active tags have local resources (such as batteries) and can operate hundreds of meters from RFID readers. Unlike barcodes, tags do not have to be in the reader's line of sight, so they may be embedded in the traced object. RFID is one of the methods for Automatic Identification and Data Capture (AIDC).
RFID tags are used in many industries, for example, RFID tags attached to cars during production can be used to track their progress through assembly lines; Drugs labeled RFID can be traced through a warehouse; and embedding RFID microchips in farm animals and pets allows positive identification of animals.
Since RFID tags can be attached to cash, clothing, and goods, or implanted in animals and humans, the possibility of reading personally linked information without consent has created serious privacy concerns. These concerns resulted in the development of standard specifications addressing privacy and security issues. ISO/IEC 18000 and ISO/IEC 29167 use on-chip cryptographic methods for ignorance, tag and reader authentication, and over-the-air privacy. ISO/IEC 20248 establishes digital signature data structures for RFID and barcodes that provide data, source and read authenticity of methods. This work is done in ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 31 Automatic identification and data retrieval techniques. Tags can also be used in stores to speed up payments, and to prevent theft by customers and employees.
By 2014, the world's RFID market is worth US $ 8.89 billion, up from US $ 7.77 billion in 2013 and US $ 6.96 billion in 2012. This figure includes tags, readers, and software/services for cards RFID, labels, fobs, and all other forms. factors. The market value is expected to increase to US $ 18.68 billion by 2026.
According to Future Market Insights, the global RFID reader market is expected to see significant CAGR of 12.3% from 2017 to 2027. The market is worth US $ 5,545.5 million in 2017 and is expected to rise to US $ 17,758.8 Mn valuation by the end of the forecast period.
Video Radio-frequency identification
History
In 1945, LÃÆ' Â © on Theremin created a listening tool for the Soviet Union that retransmitted incident radio waves with added audio information. Sound waves vibrate a diaphragm that slightly alters the shape of the resonator, which modulates the reflected radio frequency. Although this device is a secret listening device, not an identification tag, it is considered a precursor of RFID because it is passive, energized and powered by waves from outside sources.
Similar technology, such as the IFF transponder, is routinely used by allies and Germany in World War II to identify aircraft as friends or enemies. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft. Another early work exploring RFID was an important 1948 paper by Harry Stockman, who predicted that "... considerable research and development must be done before the remaining basic problems in communication of reflected power are resolved, and before useful fields of application are explored."
The Mario Cardullo device, patented on January 23, 1973, is the first ancestor of modern RFID, as it is a passive radio transponder with memory. The initial device was passive, supported by interrogation signals, and shown in 1971 to the New York Port Authority and other potential users. It consists of a transponder with 16 bits of memory to be used as a toll device. The basic Cardullo patents include the use of RF, voice and light as a transmission medium. The original business plan presented to investors in 1969 showed use in transportation (identification of automotive vehicles, automated toll systems, electronic plates, electronic manifest, vehicle routes, vehicle performance monitoring), banking (electronic checkbooks, electronic credit cards), security ( personnel identification, automatic gate, surveillance) and medical (identification, patient history).
The initial demonstration of the RFID (modulated backscatter) tags, either passive or semi-passive, was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle, and Robert Frayman at Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1973. The portable device system operated on 915 MHz and uses 12-bit tags. This technique is used by most UHFID and RFID tags today.
The first patent attributed to RFID abbreviation was given to Charles Walton in 1983.
Maps Radio-frequency identification
Design
Tag
Radio frequency identification systems use tags , or labels attached to objects to be identified. The two radio-radio-transmitted receivers are called interrogators or readers send signals to the tag and read the responses.
RFID tags can be passive, active or battery-assisted passively. The active tag has an on-board battery and periodically transmits its ID signal. Passive battery-assisted (BAP) has a small battery on board and is turned on when in the presence of RFID readers. A passive tag is cheaper and smaller because it has no battery; instead, tags use radio energy sent by readers. However, to operate passive tags, it should be illuminated with a power level approximately a thousand times stronger than for signal transmission. It makes a difference in the interference and radiation exposure.
Tags can be read-only, have factory-assigned serial numbers used as keys into the database, or can be read/written, where object-specific data can be written into tags by system users. Programmable field tags can be written once, read-multiple; The "empty" tag can be written with the electronic product code by the user.
RFID tags contain at least three parts: integrated circuits that store and process information and that modulate and demodulate radio frequency (RF) signals; DC power collection devices of incident reader signals; and antenna to receive and send signals. Tag information is stored in non-volatile memory. RFID tags include fixed or programmed logic for processing transmission and sensor data, respectively.
RFID readers send encoded radio signals to interrogate tags. The RFID tag receives the message and then responds with identification and other information. It may be just a unique serial number tag, or perhaps product related information such as stock number, lot number or batch number, production date, or other specific information. Since tags have individual serial numbers, RFID system design can differentiate between tags that may be within RFID reader's reach and read them simultaneously.
Reader
RFID systems can be classified by tag type and reader. The Active Passive Reader ( PRAT ) system has a passive reader that only receives radio signals from active tags (battery operated, transmit only). The acceptance range of the PRAT system reader can be adjusted from 1-2,000 feet (0-600 m), allowing flexibility in applications such as asset protection and control.
The Active Pass Tags ( ARPT ) system has an active reader, which transmits interrogator signals and also receives an authentication response from passive tags.
The Active Active Tags ( ARAT ) system uses active tags that are awakened with an interrogator signal from active readers. This system variation can also use a Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tag that acts like a passive tag but has a small battery to power the tag re-reporting signal.
Readers are still set up to create a tightly controlled custom interrogation zone. This allows a very clear reading area when tags go in and out of the interrogation zone. The mobile phone reader can be held or installed in the cart or vehicle.
Frequency
Signal
Signaling between the reader and the tag is performed in some incompatible way, depending on the frequency band used by the tag. Tags that operate on LF and HF bands are, in terms of radio wavelength, very close to the reader antenna because only a fraction of the wavelength is far away. In the near field, the tag is tightly coupled electrically with the transmitter in the reader. Tags can modulate the fields generated by the reader by changing the electrical loading represented by the tag. By switching between lower and higher relative loads, the tag produces changes that can be detected by the reader. At UHF and higher frequencies, tagging more than one radio wavelength away from the reader, requires a different approach. Tags can reverse signals. Active tags can contain functionally separated transmitters and receivers, and tags need not respond to frequencies associated with reader interrogation signals.
Electronic Product Code (EPC) is one of the common data types stored in tags. When written into tags by an RFID printer, the tag contains a 96-bit data string. The first eight bits are headers that identify the protocol version. The next 28 bits identify the organization that manages the data for this tag; organizational number assigned by EPCGlobal consortium. The next 24 bits are the object class, identify the product type; The last 36 bits are unique serial numbers for certain tags. These last two fields are defined by the organization that issued the tag. Instead of like a URL, the total electronic product code number can be used as a key into a global database to uniquely identify a particular product.
Often more than one tag will respond to the tag reader, for example, many individual products with tags can be sent in a common box or on a public palette. Collision detection is important to enable data readability. Two different types of protocols are used to "confine" a particular tag, allowing its data to be read in the middle of many similar tags. In a slotted Aloha system, the reader broadcasts the initialization commands and parameters used by each tag to pseudo-randomly delay their response. When using the "adaptive binary tree" protocol, the reader sends an initialization symbol and then sends one bit of ID data at a time; just tags with corresponding bit responses, and finally only one tag matches the full ID string.
Both methods have weaknesses when used with multiple tags or with some overlapping readers.
Bulk reading
"Bulk reading" is a strategy for interrogating multiple tags at the same time, but lacking sufficient precision for inventory control. A group of objects, all tagged RFID, is read entirely from a single reader position at a time. Mass readings are possible use of HF tags (ISO 18000-3), UHF (ISO 18000-6) and SHF (ISO 18000-4). However, since the tag responds strictly in sequence, the time required for bulk readings grows linearly with the number of labels to read. This means it needs at least twice as long to read the label twice as much. Due to the collision effect, the time required is greater.
A group of tags should be illuminated by an interrogation signal such as a single tag. This is not a challenge about energy, but with respect to visibility; if there are tags that are protected by other tags, they may not be sufficiently illuminated to return a sufficient response. The response conditions for the inductively coupled HF RFID tag and the coil antenna in the magnetic field look better than for the UHF or SHF dipole field, but then the distance limit is applied and can prevent success.
Under operational conditions, mass readings are not reliable. Mass reading can be a rough guide to logistical decisions, but because most of the reading failures have not (yet) been appropriate for inventory management. However, when a single RFID tag may be viewed as not guaranteeing proper readings, a group of RFID tags, where at least one will respond, may be a safer approach to detect known object groupings. In this case, the mass reading is a fuzzy method for process support. From a cost and effect perspective, mass readings are not reported as an economical approach to securing process control in logistics.
Miniaturization
RFID is easily hidden or inserted in other items. For example, in 2009 researchers at Bristol University successfully attached RFID micro-transponders to live ants to study their behavior. The trend toward increasingly miniature RFID will continue as technology advances.
Hitachi holds the record for the smallest RFID chip, at 0.05 mm - 0.05 mm. It is 1/64 the size of the previous record holder, mu-chip. Making is enabled by using silicon-on-insulator (SOI) process. These dusty chips can store 38-digit numbers using 128-bit Read Only Memory (ROM). The main challenge is the installation of the antenna, thus limiting the read range to millimeters.
Usage
RFID tags can be embedded into objects and used to track and manage inventory, assets, people, etc. For example, it can be affixed to cars, computer equipment, books, cell phones, etc.
RFID offers advantages over manual systems or bar code usage. Tags can be read if passed near the reader, even if covered by the object or not visible. Tags can be read in boxes, cartons, boxes or other containers, and unlike barcodes, RFID tags can be read hundreds at a time. The bar code can only be read one by one using the current device.
In 2011, the cost of passive tags ranging from $ 0.09 each; special tags, intended to be mounted on metal or retaining gamma sterilization, may rise up to US $ 5. Active tags for tracking containers, medical assets or monitoring environmental conditions in a data center start at US $ 50 and may rise by more than US $ 100 each. Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tags are in the range of US $ 3-10 and also have sensor capabilities such as temperature and humidity.
RFID can be used in various applications, such as:
- Access management
- Track stuff
- Track people and animals
- Toll collection and payment without contact
- Machine-readable travel document
- Smartdust (for massively distributed sensor networks)
- Airport baggage tracking logic
- Sports event time
- Tracking and billing process
In 2010 three factors led to a significant increase in RFID usage: decreased equipment and tagging costs, performance upgrades to 99.9% reliability and stable international standards around UHF passive RFID. The adoption of these standards was driven by EPCglobal, a joint venture between GS1 and GS1 AS, which was responsible for driving global adoption of barcodes in the 1970s and 1980s. The EPCglobal network is developed by Auto ID Center.
Trading
RFID provides a way for organizations to identify and manage stock, equipment and equipment (asset tracking), etc. Without manual data entry. Products manufactured such as cars or garments can be traced through the factory and via shipping to customers. Automatic identification with RFID can be used for inventory systems. Many organizations require their vendors to place RFID tags on all shipments to improve supply chain management.
Retail
RFID is used for item level tagging at retail stores. In addition to inventory control, it protects theft by customers (shoplifting) and employees ("depreciation") by using electronic article surveillance (EAS), and self-examination processes for customers. Multi-type tags can be physically removed with special tools or disabled electronically once items have been paid. When leaving the store, the customer must pass RFID detector; if they have an item with an active RFID tag, an alarm sounds, both show unpaid items, and identify what it is.
Casinos can use RFID to authenticate poker chips, and can selectively cancel any known chip stolen.
Access control
RFID tags are widely used in identification, replacing previous magnetic cards. This badge only needs to be held within a certain distance of the reader to authenticate the holder. Tags can also be placed on vehicles, which can be read remotely, to allow entry into controlled areas without having to stop the vehicle and show the card or enter the access code.
Ads
In 2010 Vail Resorts began to use the UHF RFID Passive tag on ski passes. Facebook uses RFID cards in most of their live events to allow guests to automatically capture and post photos. Automotive brands have adopted RFID for faster placement of social media products than any other industry. Mercedes is an early user in 2011 at the PGA Golf Championships, and at the Geneva Motor Show 2013 many of the larger brands use RFID for social media marketing.
Campaign tracking
To prevent resellers from transferring products, manufacturers are exploring the use of RFID tags on promoted merchandise so they can track which products have been sold through the supply chain at full discounted prices.
Transportation and logistics
Center management, shipping and delivery and distribution center using RFID tracking. In the railway industry, RFID tags mounted in locomotives and sleds identify the owner, identification number and equipment type and characteristics. It can be used with a database to identify lading, origin, destination, etc. Of the commodities brought.
In commercial aviation, RFID is used to support maintenance on commercial aircraft. RFID tags are used to identify baggage and cargo at airports and airlines.
Some countries use RFID for vehicle registration and enforcement. RFID can help detect and retrieve a stolen car.
RFID is used in intelligent transportation systems. In New York City, RFID readers are placed at the intersection to track E-ZPass tags as a means of monitoring traffic flow. Data is entered via broadband wireless infrastructure to the traffic management center for use in adaptive traffic control of traffic lights.
Hose and fluid delivery stations
RFID antennas in permanently fixed coupling pairs (fixed parts) clearly identify RFID transponders placed in other clutch parts (free sections) after the clutch is complete. When connecting a transponder from a free section transmits all important information without contact to a fixed part. The coupling location can be clearly identified by the RFID transponder coding. Controls are enabled to automatically start the next step of the process.
Track & amp; Track test vehicles and prototype parts
In the automotive industry, RFID is used for Track & amp; Track test vehicles and prototype parts (Transparent Prototype project).
Management and infrastructure protection
At least one company has introduced RFID to identify and locate underground infrastructure assets such as gas pipelines, sewers, power lines, communication cables, etc.
Passport
The first RFID passport ("E-passport") was issued by Malaysia in 1998. In addition to the information on the passport visual data page, Malaysian e-passports record travel history (time, date and place) from entry and exit from country.
Other countries that include RFID in passports include Norway (2005), Japan (March 1, 2006), most of the EU countries (around 2006), Australia, Hong Kong, USA (2007), India (June 2008), Serbia ( July 2008), Republic of Korea (August 2008), Taiwan (December 2008), Albania (January 2009), Philippines (August 2009), Republic of Macedonia (2010), Canada (2013) and Israel (2017).
The standards for RFID passports are determined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), and are contained in ICAO Document 9303, Part 1, Volumes 1 and 2 (6th edition, 2006). ICAO refers to the ISO/IEC 14443 RFID chip in e-passport as "integrated circuit without contact". ICAO standards provide electronic passports to be identified by the standard e-passport logo on the front cover.
Since 2006, RFID tags entered in the new US passport will store the same information printed in the passport, and include the owner's digital image. The US Department of State initially stated the chip could only be read from a distance of 10 cm (3.9 inches), but after widespread criticism and clear demonstration that special equipment could read the passport of 10 meters (33 feet) passport The passport was designed to incorporate a metal layer thin to make it more difficult for unauthorized readers to "skim" the information when the passport is closed. The Department will also apply Basic Access Control (BAC), which functions as a personal identification number (PIN) in the form of characters printed on the passport data page. Before passport tags can be read, this PIN must be inserted into the RFID reader. BAC also allows encryption of communication between chip and interogator. As noted in the section below about security, there are many situations where this protection has proved insufficient, and passports have been cloned based on their scan when they are sent by post.
Transport payment
In many countries, RFID tags can be used to pay mass transit rates on buses, trains, or subway, or to collect tolls on the highway.
Some bicycle lockers are operated with RFID cards assigned to individual users. Prepaid cards are required to open or enter facilities or lockers and are used to track and charge based on how long a bicycle is parked.
The Zipcar car-sharing service uses RFID cards to lock and unlock the car and for member identification.
In Singapore, RFID replaces the Season Parking Ticket (SPT).
Identification of animals
The RFID tag for animals is one of the longest use of RFID. Originally intended for large farms and rough terrain, since the outbreak of mad cow disease, RFID has become important in the management of animal identification. An RFID tag or an implantable transponder can also be used for animal identification. Transponders are better known as PIT (Passive Integrated Transponder) tags, passive RFID, or "chip" in animals. Canadian Cattle Identification Agency started using RFID tags instead of barcode tags. Currently the CCIA tags are used in Wisconsin and by voluntary US farmers. USDA is currently developing its own program.
RFID tags are required for all cattle sold in Australia and in some states, sheep and goats as well.
Human implantation
Biocompatible microchip implants that utilize RFID technology are being implanted routinely to humans. The first experiments reported with RFID implants were performed by English cybernetics professor Kevin Warwick who had an RFID chip planted in his arm by general practitioner George Boulos in 1998. In 2004, 'Baja Beach Clubs' was operated by Conrad Chase in Barcelona and Rotterdam. offering embedded chips to identify their VIP customers, who can in turn be using it to pay for services. In 2009, British scientist Mark Gasson had a sophisticated RFID capsule device embedded into his left hand and then showed how computer viruses could wirelessly infect their implants and then passed on to other systems.
The Food and Drug Administration in the United States approved the use of RFID chips in humans in 2004.
There is controversy regarding human applications of implantable RFID technology including the concern that individuals are potentially traced by bringing unique identifiers to them. Privacy advocates protest against implantable RFID chips, warning of possible misuse. Some fear this may lead to harassment by authoritarian governments, the abolition of freedom, and the emergence of an "ultimate panopticon", a society in which all citizens behave socially acceptable because others may oversee.
On July 22, 2006, Reuters reported that two hackers, Newitz and Westhues, at a conference in New York City showed that they could clone RFID signals from human-planted RFID chips, suggesting that the device is not as secure as previously claimed.
Institution
Hospitals and healthcare
In health care, there is a need to increase visibility, efficiency, and data collection around relevant interactions. RFID tracking solutions can help health facilities manage mobile medical equipment, improve patient workflows, monitor environmental conditions, and protect patients, staff and visitors from infections or other hazards.
The adoption of RFID in the medical industry has been widespread and highly effective. The hospital was one of the first users to incorporate active and passive RFID. Many successful applications in the health care industry have been cited where technology actively tracks high value, or frequently transferred items, where passive technology tracks smaller, lower cost items that require only room level identification. For example, medical facility rooms may collect data from RFID badge transmission imposed by patients and employees, as well as from tags assigned to facility assets, such as mobile medical devices. The US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) recently announced plans to deploy RFID in hospitals across America to improve care and reduce costs.
A physical RFID tag can be combined with browser-based software to increase its efficacy. The software allows different groups or staff of specific hospitals, nurses, and patients to view real-time data relevant to each piece of equipment or personnel being tracked. Real-time data is stored and archived to utilize the functionality of historical reporting and to prove compliance with various industry regulations. This combination of RFID finds hardware and software provides powerful data collection tools for facilities that seek to improve operational efficiency and reduce costs.
The tendency is to use ISO 18000-6c as the option tag and incorporate an active tagging system that relies on existing 802.11X wireless infrastructure for active tags.
Since 2004 a number of US hospitals have begun to instill patients with RFID tags and use RFID systems, usually for workflow and inventory management. The use of RFID to prevent mixups between sperm and ovum at IVF clinics is also being considered.
In October 2004, the FDA approved the first US RFID chip that can be implanted in humans. The 134 kHz RFID chip, from VeriChip Corp. can include personal medical information and can save lives and limit injuries from errors in medical care, according to the company. Anti-RFID activists Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre found the FDA's Warning Letters mentioning health risks. According to the FDA, this includes "adverse tissue reactions", "implanted migration transponders", "implantable implantable transponder failure", "electrical hazard" and "magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] mismatch".
Library
Libraries have used RFID to replace barcodes on library items. Tags may contain identification information or may just be keys into the database. RFID systems can replace or supplement bar codes and may offer other methods for inventory management and self-service checkout by customers. It can also act as a security device, taking its place from the more traditional electromagnetic security strip.
It is estimated that over 30 million library items worldwide now contain RFID tags, including some at the Vatican Library in Rome.
Because RFID tags can be read through an item, there's no need to open the cover of a book or DVD box to scan an item, and a stack of books can be read simultaneously. The book label can be read while the book is moving in the conveyor belt, which reduces staff time. This can all be done by the borrowers themselves, reducing the need for library staff assistance. With a portable reader, inventory can be done across the entire material shelf in seconds. However, in 2008 this technology was still too expensive for many smaller libraries, and the conversion period had been estimated at 11 months for the average sized library. The Dutch estimate in 2004 was that the library that lent 100,000 books a year should plan a fee of EUR50,000 (lending and returning stations: 12,500 each, 10,000 homepage detection respectively; 0.36 tags respectively). RFID taking on a large load of staff could also mean that fewer staff would be needed, so some of them were laid off, but so far have not happened in North America where the latest survey has not returned a library that cuts staff due to adding RFID. In fact, the library budget is reduced for personnel and increased for infrastructure, so it is necessary for the library to add automation to offset the diminished staff size. Also, tasks that take over RFID are largely not the librarian's main task. A finding in the Netherlands is that borrowers are happy with the fact that staff are now more available to answer questions.
Privacy issues have been raised around the use of RFID libraries. Because some RFID tags can be read from up to 100 meters (330 ft), there is some concern as to whether sensitive information can be collected from unwanted sources. However, the RFID tag library does not contain patron information, and the tags used in most libraries use frequencies only readable from about 10 feet (3.0 m). Furthermore, other non-library agencies have the potential to record RFID tags from anyone who leaves the library without the knowledge or approval of the library administrator. One simple option is to let the book send a code that has meaning only in relation to the library database. Another possible improvement is to give each new code book each time it is returned. In the future, if readers become ubiquitous (and possibly networked), then stolen books can be traced even outside the library. Removal of tags can be complicated if the tag is so small that it is not visible inside the page (random), may be placed there by the publisher.
Museum
RFID technology is now also implemented in end-user applications in museums. An example is a specially designed temporary research application, "eXspot," in Exploratorium, a science museum in San Francisco, California. A visitor entering the museum receives an RF Tag which can be taken as a card. The eXspot system allows visitors to receive information about a particular exhibit. Apart from exhibition information, visitors can take photos of themselves at the exhibition. It is also intended to allow visitors to retrieve data for later analysis. The collected information can be retrieved at home from the "personalized" website entered into the RFID tag.
Schools and universities
School authorities in Osaka city of Japan are now cutting children's clothing, backpacks, and student cards in elementary schools. A school in Doncaster, England is driving a monitoring system designed to monitor students by tracking radio chips in their uniform. St. Charles Sixth Form College in west London, England, began September, 2008, using an RFID card system to check in and out of the main gateway, to track attendance and prevent unauthorized entry. Similarly, Whitcliffe Mount School in Cleckheaton, UK uses RFID to track students and staff in and out of the building through specially designed cards. In the Philippines, some schools already use RFID in IDs to borrow books and also gates in certain schools have RFID ID scanners to buy goods at school stores and canteens, libraries and also for entry and exit for students and teacher attendance.
Sports
RFID for race timing began in the early 1990s with pigeon racing, which was introduced by the company Deister Electronics in Germany. RFID can provide start and end time races for individuals in big races where it is not possible to get accurate stopwatch readings for each participant.
In the race, the racer uses a tag read by an antenna placed along the track or on a mat on the track. The UHF tag provides accurate readings with specially designed antennas. Rash errors, lap count errors, and accidents at the start are avoided because anyone can start and finish at any time without being in batch mode.
The antenna chip design controls the range from which it can be read. The short range of compact chips that are attached to the shoes or velcro are tied to the ankles. It should be about 400mm from the mat and provide excellent temporal resolution. Or, a chip plus a very large antenna (125 mm square antenna) can be inserted into the bib number worn on the chest of an athlete with a height of about 1.25m.
Passive and active RFID systems are used in off-road events such as Orienteering, Enduro and Hare and Hounds racing. The rider has a transponder on the person, usually on his arm. As they complete the round, they swipe or touch the recipient connected to the computer and record their lap time.
RFID is being adapted by many recruitment agencies that have PET (Physical Endurance Test) as their qualification procedure, especially in cases where the volume of candidates can reach millions (Indian Railway Recruitment Cells, Police, and Power sectors).
A number of ski resorts have adopted RFID tags to provide hands-free skiers access to ski lifts. The skiers do not need to spend money out of his pocket. The ski jacket has a left pocket in which the chip card fits. It almost contacts the sensor unit to the left of the revolving door as the skier pushes up to the elevator. This system is based on high frequency (HF) at 13.56 megahertz. Most ski areas in Europe, from Verbier to Chamonix use this system.
The NFL in the United States equips players with RFID chips that measure the speed, distance, and direction that each player goes through in real-time. Currently the camera remains focused on quarterbacks, however, many dramas are happening simultaneously in the field. The RFID chip will provide new insights into this simultaneous game. This chip triangulates the player's position in six inches and will be used for reruns of digital broadcasts. RFID chips will make the individual player information publicly accessible. Data will be available through the 2015 NFL application. RFID chips are manufactured by Zebra Technologies. Zebra Technologies tested RFID chips in 18 stadiums last year to track vector data.
Complement to barcode
RFID tags are often complementary, but not substitute, for UPC or EAN barcodes. They may never completely replace barcodes, partly because of the higher costs and advantages of multiple data sources on the same object. Also, unlike RFID labels, barcodes can be generated and distributed electronically, for example via e-mail or mobile phone, to be printed or displayed by the recipient. An example is the boarding pass of the aircraft. The new EPC, along with several other schemes, is widely available at a reasonable cost.
The data storage associated with the tracking item will require many terabytes. Filtering and categorizing RFID data is required to create useful information. It is likely that the goods will be tracked by pallets using RFID tags, and at the package level with Universal Product Code (UPC) or EAN from unique barcodes.
Unique identity is a mandatory requirement for RFID tags, although there are special options from the numbering scheme. The RFID tag data capacity is large enough that each individual tag will have a unique code, while the current barcode is limited to a single type code for a particular product. The uniqueness of RFID tags means that a product can be traced when moving from one location to another, eventually ending up in the hands of consumers. This can help combat theft and other forms of product loss. Product search is an important feature that is well supported with RFID tags that contain the unique identity of the tag as well as object serial number. This can help companies overcome quality deficiencies and generate withdrawal campaigns, but also contribute to concerns about tracking and profiles of consumers after sales.
Waste management
RFID was recently developed in the waste management industry. The RFID tag is installed in the garbage collection cart, connecting the cart to the owner account for ease of service billing and verification. The RFID tag is embedded into the trash can and recycles the container, while the RFID reader is pasted into the garbage truck and recycled. RFID also measures the level of customer determination and provides insight into the number of trains serviced by each garbage collection vehicle. This RFID process replaces traditional pay-as-you-throw (PAYT) programs.
Telemetry
Active tag RFID also has the potential to function as a cheap remote sensor that broadcasts telemetry back to the base station. The application of tagometry data can include the sensing of road conditions by flare implants, weather reports, and noise level monitoring.
Passive RFID tags can also report sensor data. For example, Wireless Identification and Sensing Platforms are passive tags that report temperature, acceleration and capacitance for commercial RFID Gen2 readers.
It is possible that passive or battery-assisted passive (BAP) RFID tags can broadcast signals to recipients in the store to determine whether RFID tags (products) are in store.
Rules and standardization
A number of organizations have set standards for RFID, including the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), ASTM International, DASH7 Alliance and EPCglobal.
There are also some specialized industries that have set guidelines. These industries include the Financial Services Technology Consortium (FSTC) that has set standards for tracking IT Assets with RFID, the CompTIA Computer Technology Industry Association that has set standards for RFID engineer certification, and IATA IATA International Transport Association that has set guidance tags for luggage at the airport.
In principle, each country can set its own rules for frequency allocation for RFID tags, and not all radio bands are available in all countries. This frequency is known as ISM bands (band Industrial Scientific and Medical). The signal return signal can still cause interference to other radio users.
- Low frequency tags (LF: 125-134.2 kHz and 140-148.5 kHz) (LowFID) and high frequency tags (HF: 13.56 MHz) (HighFID) can be used globally without a license. Ultra-high frequency (UHF: 865-928Ã, MHz) (Ultra-HighFID or UHFID) tags can not be used globally because there are no global standards and regulations that differ from country to country.
In North America, UHF can be used without permission for 902-928 MHz (Â ± 13 MHz from the middle frequency of 915 MHz), but restrictions exist for transmission power. In Europe, RFID and other low-power radio applications are governed by ETSI EN 300 220 and EN 302 208 recommendations, and the ERO 70 03 recommendation, enabling RFID operations with rather complicated ribbon restrictions of 865-868 MHz. Readers are asked to monitor the channel before transmitting ("Listen Before Talk"); This requirement has led to some restrictions on performance, the resolution that is the subject of current research. North American UHF standards are not accepted in France for disrupting military bands. On July 25, 2012, Japan changed the band UHF to 920 MHz, closer to the band 915Ã, MHz United States.
In some countries, site licenses are required, which need to be applied to local authorities, and may be revoked.
According to a general review set by GS1, as of October 31, 2014, the rules apply in 78 countries representing ca. 96.5% of world GDP, and work on regulations is underway in 3 countries representing about 1% of the world's GDP.
Standards that have been made regarding RFID include:
- ISO 11784/11785 - Animal identification. Using 134.2Khz.
- ISO 14223 - Radio animal frequency identification - Advanced transponders
- ISO/IEC 14443: This standard is the popular standard HF (13.56 MHz) for Highfault which is used as the base of RFID-enabled passports under ICAO 9303. Near Field Communication Standards that enable mobile devices to act as RFID readers/transponders as well based on ISO/IEC 14443.
- ISO/IEC 15693: This is also a popular HF standard (13.56 MHz) for Highfault which is widely used for smart payments and non-contact credit cards.
- ISO/IEC 18000: Information technology - Radio frequency identification for item management:
- ISO/IEC 18092 Information technology - Telecommunication and information exchange between systems - Near Field Communication - Interface and Protocol (NFCIP-1)
- ISO 18185: This is the industry standard for electronic seals or "e-seals" to track cargo containers using 433 MHz and 2.4 GHz frequencies.
- ISO/IEC 21481 Information technology - Telecommunication and information exchange between systems - Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol -2 (NFCIP-2)
- ASTM D7434, Standard Test Method for Determining Passive Radio Frequency Identification Performance (RFID) Transponder on Palletized or Unitized Expenses
- ASTM D7435, Standard Test Method for Determining Passive Radio Frequency Identification Performance (RFID) Transponder on Loaded Containers
- ASTM D7580, Standard Test Method for Rotary Stretch Wrapper Method for Determining Ready RFID Passive Transponder on Palletized or Unitized Homogenous Load
- ISO 28560-2: sets the encoding and data modeling standards for use in libraries.
To ensure global product interoperability, some organizations have set up additional standards for RFID testing. These standards include conformance tests, performance and interoperability.
EPC Gen2
EPC Gen2 is short for EPCglobal UHF Class 1 Generation 2 .
EPCglobal, a joint venture between GS1 and GS1 AS, works on international standards for the most passive use of RFID and Electronic Product Cards (EPCs) in the identification of many items in the supply chain for companies worldwide.
One of EPCglobal's missions is to simplify the prevailing Babylon protocol in the RFID world in the 1990s. The two air interface tags (protocols for exchanging information between tags and readers) are defined (but not ratified) by EPCglobal before 2003. This protocol, commonly known as Class 0 and Class 1, saw significant commercial implementation in 2002-2005.
In 2004, the Hardware Action Group created a new protocol, Class 1 Generation 2 interface, which addressed a number of issues that have been experienced with Class 0 and Class 1 tags. The EPC Gen2 standard was approved in December 2004. It was approved after a statement from Intermec that the standard it may violate a number of their RFID related patents. It was decided that the standard itself did not infringe on their patents, making standard free royalties. The EPC Gen2 standard was adopted with slight modifications such as ISO 18000-6C in 2006.
In 2007, the lowest cost of ETO Gen2 was offered by SmartCode, which is now non-functional, at a price of $ 0.05 each in volumes of 100 million or more. However, further conversion (including additional label stock or encapsulation/insertion process and freight costs to a given facility or DC) and from inlays into a usable RFID label and the standard design of the current 2 Gen protocol will increase the total final cost, especially with the extension of additional security features for RFID Supply Chain item level tagging.
Issues and concerns
Data flooding
Not every successful tag reading (observation) is useful for business purposes. Large amounts of data can be generated which is not useful for managing inventory or other applications. For example, customers move products from one rack to another, or the burden of an article palette that passes through multiple readers as they move in the warehouse, is an event that does not produce meaningful data for the inventory control system.
Event filtering is required to reduce this data stream to meaningful depictions of items moving past the threshold. Various concepts have been designed, primarily offered as middleware which filters out the rowdy and excessive raw data to significantly processed data.
Global standardization
Frequencies used for UHF RFID in the US are currently incompatible with European or Japanese frequencies. Furthermore, there are no new standards that become universal like barcodes. To resolve the issue of international trade, it is necessary to use tags that operate across all international frequency domains.
Security worries
The main RFID security concern is the illegal tracking of RFID tags. Tags, which are world-readable, pose a risk to privacy of personal location and corporate/military security. Such concerns have been raised in light of the recent adoption of RFID tags by the US Department of Defense for supply chain management. More generally, privacy organizations have expressed concern in the context of ongoing efforts to embed the RFID tags of electronic product (EPC) in consumer products. This is largely as a result of the fact that RFID tags can be read, and legitimate transactions with readers can be tapped, from non-trivial distances. RFID used in access control systems, payments and eIDs (e-passports) operate at a shorter distance than the RFID EPC system but are also susceptible to cuts and intercepts, albeit at shorter distances.
The second prevention method is to use cryptography. Rolling codes and challenge-response authentication (CRA) are commonly used to thwart the repetition of message monitors between tags and readers; because every message that has been recorded will prove unsuccessful on repeating transmission. The rolling code depends on the tag id changed after each interrogation, while CRA uses the software to request cryptographic code responses from the tag. The protocols used during CRA can be symmetric, or can use public key cryptography.
Unauthorized reading of RFID tags presents a risk to privacy. Unauthorized readers may use RFID information to identify or track packages, consumers, carriers, or packaged content. Several prototype systems are being developed to combat unauthorized readings, including RFID signal interference, and possible legislation, and 700 scientific papers have been published on this subject since 2002. There is also concern that the database structure of the Naming Service Objects may be vulnerable to infiltration, similar to denial-of-service attacks, after the EPCglobal Network ONS root server proved vulnerable.
Health
Microchip-induced tumors have been recorded during animal testing.
Exploit
Ars Technica reported in March 2006 an RFID buffer overflow buffer that could infect an airport terminal. RFID database for trunk, and also passport database to obtain confidential information on passport holders.
Passport
In an effort to standardize and simplify the passport process, some countries have implemented RFID in passports, despite security and privacy concerns. Encryption on broken English chips in less than 48 hours. Since the incident, further efforts have allowed researchers to clone passport data while passports are being sent to their owners. Where a criminal used needs to quietly open and then close the envelope, it can now be done without detection, adding some degree of insecurity to the passport system.
Protect
In an effort to prevent passive "skimming" of the card or RFID passport, the US General Services Administration (GSA) issued a series of test procedures to evaluate the opaque electromagnetic arms. In order to protect products to comply with FIPS-201 guidelines, they must meet or exceed these published standards. The shielding products are currently evaluated as FIPS-201 compliant listed on the FIPS-201 AS CIO Program Evaluation website. The Government of the United States requires that when new ID cards are issued, they must be shipped with an approved arm or protective holder.
There are conflicting opinions as to whether aluminum can prevent RFID chip readings. Some people claim that aluminum protects, essentially creating Faraday's cage, functioning. Others claim that simply wrapping RFID cards in aluminum foil only makes transmissions more difficult and not fully effective in preventing them.
The effectiveness of the shield depends on the frequency used. Low Frequency LowFID tags, such as those used in implant devices for humans and pets, are relatively resistant to the protective material although thick metal foil will prevent most readings. High Frequency HighFID Tags (13.56 MHz - smart cards and access badges) are sensitive to shields and hard to read when in a few centimeters of metal surface. Ultra-HighFID UHF tags (palettes and cartons) are hard to read when placed within millimeters of metal surfaces, even though their reading ranges actually increase when they are 2-4 cm from the metal surface due to positive reinforcement of reflecting waves and incident waves in the tag.
Controversy
Privacy
The use of RFID has caused controversy and even a product boycott by consumer privacy advocates. Consumer privacy expert Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre are two of the leading critics of "spychip" technology. The two main privacy issues related to RFID are:
- Because the item owner does not need to be aware of the existence of RFID tags and the tags can be read remotely without the individual's knowledge, it becomes possible to collect sensitive data about a person without consent.
- If the marked item is paid by credit card or along with the use of a loyalty card, it is possible to indirectly infer the buyer's identity by reading the global unique ID of the item (contained in the RFID mark). This is only true if the viewer also has access to loyalty card data and credit card data, and the person with the equipment knows where you are going.
Much of the concern revolves around the fact that the RFID tags affixed to the product remain functional even after the product is purchased and taken home and thus can be used for surveillance and other purposes unrelated to their supply chain's supply function.
The RFID network argues that these fears are unfounded in the first episode of their syndicated cable TV series by letting RF engineers demonstrate how RFID works. They provide RF engineer images driving an RFID-capable van around the building and try to inventory the items inside. They discuss satellite tracking of passive RFID tags, which is surprising because the maximum range is below 200m.
Concerns raised by the above can be partially solved by using Clipped Tags. The Clipped Tag is an RFID tag designed to enhance consumer privacy. The Clipped Tag has been suggested by IBM researchers Paul Moskowitz and Guenter Karjoth. After the point of sale, consumers can tear off a portion of the tag. This allows remote tag transformation to be a readable proximity tag, but only a short distance - less than a few inches or centimeter. Modified tags can be visually confirmed. The tag may still be used later for return, withdrawal, or recycling.
However, the read range is a function of the reader and the tag itself. Improvements in technology can increase the reading range for tags. Tags can be read over a longer range than those designed to increase reader power. The read distance limit then becomes the signal-to-noise ratio of the reflected signal from the tag back to the reader. Researchers at two security conferences have demonstrated that passive Ultra-HighFID tags normally read in the range of up to 30 feet, can be read in the 50 to 69 feet range using the appropriate equipment.
In January 2004, privacy advocates from CASPIAN and the German privacy group FoeBuD were invited to the METRO Future Store in Germany, where an RFID pilot project was implemented. It was discovered by chance that the METRO "Payback" customer loyalty card contains the RFID tag with the customer ID, an undisclosed fact to the customer receiving the card, or this privacy support group. This occurs despite warranties by METRO that no customer identification data is being tracked and all RFID usage is clearly disclosed.
During the United Nations World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) between November 16 and 18, 2005, the founder of the free software movement, Richard Stallman, protested the use of RFID security cards by closing the cards with aluminum foil.
In 2004-2005, the Federal Trade Commissioner staff conducted workshops and reviewed RFID privacy issues and issued a report recommending best practice.
RFID is one of the main topics of the Chaos Communications Congress 2006 (hosted by the Chaos Computer Club in Berlin) and sparked a major press debate. Topics include: electronic passport, Mifare cryptography and tickets for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. The talks show how the first real-world mass application of RFID at the 2006 FIFA Football World Cup succeeded. The monochrome group holds a special 'Hack RFID' song.
Government control
Some individuals have grown fear of losing their rights due to human RFID implantation.
In early 2007, Chris Paget from San Francisco, California, pointed out that RFID information can be withdrawn from individuals using only $ 250 worth of equipment. It supports the claim that with information taken, it would be relatively easy to make fake passports.
According to ZDNet, critics believe that RFID will lead to tracking every individual movement and will be a privacy violation. In the book SpyChips: How Large Companies and Government Plans to Track Any of Your Move by Katherine Albrecht and Liz McIntyre, one is encouraged to "imagine a world without privacy where every purchase you monitored and recorded in the database and every your ownership is numbered, where a lot of countries go or maybe in another country have a record of everything you've ever bought, moreover they can be tracked and monitored remotely.
Deliberate destruction in clothing and other items
According to the RSA laboratory's FAQ, RFID tags can be destroyed with a standard microwave oven; However, some types of RFID tags, especially those built to transmit using large metallic antennas (especially RF tags and EPC tags), can burn if too long undergoes this process (as well as metal goods in a microwave oven). This simple method can not be safely used to disable the RFID feature on an electronic device, or that is embedded in a live network, because of the risk of damage to the "host". But the time required is very short (one or two seconds of radiation) and this method works in many non-electronic objects and other inanimate objects, long before heat or fire becomes a concern.
Some RFID tags apply the "kill command" mechanism to disable it permanently and can not be restored. This mechanism can be applied if the chip itself is trusted or this mechanism is known by the person who wants to "kill" the tag.
The UHF RFID tags that conform to the standard EPC2 Gen 2 Class 1 usually support this mechanism, while protecting the chip from being killed by password. Guessing or hacking this requires a 32-bit password to kill tags will not be difficult for the specified attacker.
See also
References
Rfid Tags
External links
- UHF rule overview by GS1
- What is RFID? Educational videos by RFID Network
- How RFID Works in HowStuffWorks
- Privacy issues and proposed privacy laws
- RFID in Curlie (based on DMOZ)
- What is RFID? - Animation Explanation
- Hardgrave, Bill C.; Aloysius, John; Goyal, Sandeep (2009). "Does RFID improve inventory accuracy? Initial analysis". International Journal of RF Technology: Research and Applications . 1 (1): 45-56. doi: 10.1080/17545730802338333.
- IEEE board about RFID
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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