The Federalist Papers

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The Federalist Papers are a collection of 85 articles and essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay under the pseudonym "Publius" to promote the ratification of the Constitution of the United States. The first of these essays was published serially in the Independent Journal , the New York Package , and Daily Advertiser between October 1787 and April 1788 A two-volume compilation of 77 essays and eight other essays were published as The Federalist: A Collection of Essays, Written in New Constitution Requests, as Accepted by the Federal Convention, 17 September 1787 by the issuing company J. & amp; A. McLean in March and May 1788. This collection is commonly known as The Federalist until the name The Federalist Papers appeared in the 20th century.

Although the authors of The Federalist primarily want to influence the vote in favor of ratifying the Constitution, in "Federalist No. 1", they explicitly organize the debate in broader political terms:

It has often been said that it appears to have been reserved for the people of this country, through their behavior and example, to decide the important question, whether human society is really capable or not, to build a good government of reflection and choice. , or whether they are forever destined to depend, for their political constitution, on accidents and forces.

"Federalist No. 10", in which Madison discusses ways of preventing government by a majority faction and supporting large commercial republics, is generally regarded as the most important of 85 articles from a philosophical perspective; this is supplemented by "Federalist No. 14", in which Madison takes the measure of the United States, declares that it is appropriate for an expanded republic, and ends with an unforgettable defense of the constitutional and political creativity of the Federal Convention. In "Federalist No. 84", Hamilton made the case that there was no need to change the Constitution by adding the Bill of Rights, insisting that the various provisions of the proposed Constitution protect the amount of freedom to "bill of rights". "Federalist No. 78", also written by Hamilton, lays the groundwork for the doctrine of judicial review by federal courts of federal law or executive action. "Federalist No. 70" presents Hamilton's case for a single chief executive. In "Federalist No. 39", Madison presents the clearest explanation of what came to be called "Federalism". In "Federalist No. 51", Madison distilled the argument for checks and balances in a frequently quoted essay for government justification as "the greatest of all reflections on human nature."

According to historian Richard B. Morris, they are "an inimitable exposition of the Constitution, a classic in political science unmatched both in and extent by the product of any later American writer."

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Origins

The Federal Convention sent the proposed Constitution to the Confederate Congress, which in turn handed it to states for ratification by the end of September 1787. On September 27, 1787, "Cato" first appeared in the New York press criticizing the proposition; "Brutus" was followed on 18 October 1787. These and other articles and public letters critical of the new Constitution will eventually be known as "Anti-Federalist Papers". In response, Alexander Hamilton decided to launch a measurable defense and broad explanation of the proposed Constitution to the people of New York state. He writes in Federalist No. 1 that the series will "attempt to provide satisfactory answers to all objections that will make their appearance, which may seem to have a claim on your attention."

Hamilton recruited collaborators for the project. He asked John Jay, who after four powerful essays (Federalist No. 2, 3, 4, and 5), got sick and contributed just one more essay, No. Federalist. 64, to the series. He also distilled his case into a pamphlet in the spring of 1788, Address to the People of the State of New York ; Hamilton was quoted as agreeing in Federalist No. 1. 85. James Madison, present in New York as a Virginia delegate to the Confederate Congress, was recruited by Hamilton and Jay, and became Hamilton's principal collaborator. Gouverneur Morris and William Duer are also apparently considered; Morris declined the invitation, and Hamilton rejected three essays by Duer. Duer later wrote to support three Federalist writers under the name "Philo-Publius", or "Friend Pubus".

Hamilton chose "Publius" as the pseudonym in which the series was to be written. While many other parts representing both sides of the constitutional debate are written in Roman names, Albert Furtwangler argues that "Publius" is a cut above 'Caesar' or 'Brutus' or even 'Cato'. Publius Valerius was not a late republican defender but one of its founders. His more famous name, Publicola, means 'friend of the people'. "This is not the first time Hamilton used this pseudonym: in 1778 he had applied to three letters attacking fellow Federalist Samuel Chase.Phatriotism Chase was questioned when Hamilton revealed that Chase had taken advantage of the knowledge gained in Congress to try to dominate the flour market.

Authorship

At the time of article authorship publication is a closely guarded secret, though astute observers discover the identities of Hamilton, Madison, and Jay. Following Hamilton's death in 1804, the list he had designated fully two-thirds of the paper for himself became public, including some of the seemingly more likely works of Madison (No. 49-58 and 62-63). The work of scientific detective Douglass Adair in 1944 postulates the following author's assignment, reinforced in 1964 by computer analysis of texts:

Alexander Hamilton (51 articles: No. 1, 6-9, 11-13, 15-17, 21-36, 59-61, and 65-85)
James Madison (29 articles: No. 10, 14, 18-20, 37-58, and 62-63)
John Jay (5 articles: No. 2-5 and 64).

A total of 85 articles were written by three people in a span of ten months under the pseudonym "Publius" because it recalled the founder of the Roman Republic, and used it implied positive intentions. Madison is now recognized as the father of the Constitution - despite his repudiation of this honor over and over during his lifetime. Madison became a prominent member of the US House of Representatives of Virginia (1789-1797), Secretary of State (1801-1809), and finally the fourth President of the United States. Hamilton, who had been a major supporter of national constitutional reform throughout the 1780s and representing New York at the Constitution Convention, in 1789 became the first Minister of Finance, the post he held until his resignation in 1795. John Jay, who had been secretary for external affairs the country under the Confederate Budget from 1784 until its expiration in 1789, became the first US Chief Judge in 1789, resigned in 1795 to accept the election as governor of New York, a post he held for two periods, retired in 1801.

Publications

The Federalist article appeared in three New York newspapers: The Independent Journal , New-York Packages , and Daily Advertiser i>, commencing on 27 October 1787. Although written and published in haste, the Federalist article is widely read and profoundly influences the shape of American political institutions. Among them, Hamilton, Madison, and Jay continue to run rapidly, with sometimes three or four new essays by Publius appearing in the newspapers of the week. Garry Wills observes that the production rate is "overwhelmed" with every possible response: "Who, given the time enough to answer like a battery argument? And no time given." Hamilton also encouraged reprinting of essays in newspapers outside of New York state, and was indeed published in several other states where ratification debates took place. However, they are only published irregularly outside New York, and in other parts of the country they are often overshadowed by local authors.

Since the essay was originally published in New York, most of them started with the same greeting: "To People in New York State".

The high demand for the essay led to their publication in a more permanent form. On January 1, 1788, the publishing company of New York J. & amp; A. McLean announced that they would publish the first thirty-six essays as bound volumes; the volume was released on March 22, 1788 and was titled The Federalist Volume 1. New essays kept appearing in newspapers; Federalist No. 77 is the last number that appears first in that form, on 2 April. The second tied volume contains Federalist 37-77 and has not been published Federalist 78 -85 released on May 28th. The last eight papers ( Federalist 78-85) were reissued in the New York newspaper between June 14 and August 16, 1788.

A French edition of 1792 concludes Publius's collective anonymity, announcing that the work has been written by "MM Hamilton, Maddisson E Gay", a New York State resident. In 1802, George Hopkins published an American edition that also named the author. Hopkins also hopes that "the author's name must start with every number," but at this point Hamilton insists that this is not happening, and the division of essays between the three authors remains secret.

The first publication to share papers in such a way was the 1810 edition which used the list left by Hamilton to associate authors with their numbers; this edition appears as two volumes of "Hamilton Work" that are compiled. In 1818, Jacob Gideon published a new edition with a list of new authors, based on a list provided by Madison. The difference between Hamilton and Madison lists forms the basis for disputes about the authorship of a dozen essays.

Both the Hopkins and Gideon editions include significant edits to the text of the paper itself, generally with the author's consent. In 1863, Henry Dawson published an edition containing the original text of the paper, arguing that they must be preserved as it was written in a particular historical moment, unlike the one edited by the author several years later.

Modern scholars generally use the text prepared by Jacob E. Cooke for his 1961 edition of The Federalist ; this edition uses newspaper texts for the essay number 1-76 and the McLean edition for the 77-85 essay number.

Disputed essay

The writing of the seventy-three essays of The Federalist is pretty sure. Twelve of these essays are debated by some experts, although the modern consensus is that Madison wrote an essay No.49-58, with No. 18-20 became a collaborative product between him and Hamilton; Number 64 by John Jay. The first open appointment of whose essay was provided by Hamilton who, in the days before the weapon duel was ultimately fatal with Aaron Burr, gave his lawyer a checklist of author details of each number. The list is credited to Hamilton with a full sixty-three essays (three of which are co-written with Madison), almost three-quarters of the total, and used as a basis for printing in 1810 which was the first to make specific attributions for the essay.

Madison did not immediately deny Hamilton's list, but gave his own list for Gideon's 1818 edition of The Federalist. Madison claimed twenty-nine points for himself, and he suggested that the differences between the two lists "are undoubtedly due to the rush in which the [Hamilton] memorandum was made." Known errors in Hamilton's list - Hamilton is mistakenly considered No. 54 for John Jay, when in fact, Jay wrote No. 64 - provides some evidence for Madison's suggestion.

Statistical analysis has been done on several occasions to try to ascertain authorship questions based on word frequency and writing style. Almost all statistical studies show that the disputed papers were written by Madison, although computer science studies theorize that papers are a collaborative effort.

Influence on the ratification debate

The Federalist Papers were written to support the ratification of the Constitution, especially in New York. Whether they succeed in this mission is questionable. Separate ratification processes take place in individual states, and essays are not reprinted properly outside New York; Furthermore, by the time this series is going well, a number of important countries have ratified it, such as Pennsylvania on 12 December. New York lasts until July 26; of course The Federalist is more important there than elsewhere, but Furtwangler argues that it "can hardly rival any other great power in the ratification contest" - in particular, these powers include the personal influences of the notorious Federalists. , such as Hamilton and Jay, and Anti-Federalists, including Governor George Clinton. Furthermore, by the time New York came to the ballot, ten states had ratified the Constitution and had passed - only nine countries had to ratify it for a new government to be established between them; ratification by Virginia, the tenth state, put pressure on New York to ratify. To that end, Furtwangler observed, "New York's rejection will make the country a strange stranger."

Only 19 Federalists were elected to the New York ratification convention, compared to 46 anti-Federalist delegates. While New York does ratify the Constitution on July 26, the lack of public support for the Federalist pro-Constitution has led historian John Kaminski to point out that the impact of The Federalist on New Yorkers is "ignored".

As for Virginia, who only ratified the Constitution at the convention on June 25, Hamilton wrote in a letter to Madison that the edition collected from The Federalist had been sent to Virginia; Furtwangler considers that it acts as a "handbook of debate for convention there," although he claims that this indirect influence will be "a dubious distinction." Perhaps more important for Virginia's debate, in any case, is George Washington's support for the proposed Constitution and the presence of Madison and Edmund Randolph, the governor, at the convention that argued for ratification.

Maps The Federalist Papers

Structure and content

In Federalist No. 1, Hamilton mentions six topics to be covered in the next article:

"The UNION utility for your political prosperity" - included in No. 2 to No. 14
"The current Confederacy insufficiency to preserve Unity" "is read in No. 15 to No. 22
"The necessity of the government is at least as energetic as that proposed for the attainment of this object" - is covered by No. 23 to No. 36
"The proposed constitutional conformity with the principles of true republican government" - is covered by No. 37 to No. 84
"The analogy with your own country's constitution" - is covered by No. 85
"The additional security that will be adopted by the preservation of the species of government, towards freedom and prosperity" - is included in No. 85.

Furtwangler noted that as the series progresses, the plan is somewhat altered. The fourth topic extends to the detailed coverage of each of the articles of the Constitutions and mandated institutions, while the last two topics are only mentioned in the last essay.

Papers can be broken down by the author as well as by topic. At the beginning of the series, the three authors contribute; the first twenty papers were solved as eleven by Hamilton, five by Madison and four by Jay. The remainder of the series, however, is dominated by three long segments by a single author: No. 21 to No. 36 by Hamilton, No. 37 to 58 by Madison, was written when Hamilton was in Albany, and No. 65 through terminated by Hamilton, was published after Madison went to Virginia.

Opposition to Bill of Rights

The Federalist Papers (especially Federalist No. 84) are notorious for their opposition to what became the Bill of Rights of the United States. The idea of â€‹â€‹the addition of the Human Rights Act to the Constitution was initially controversial because the Constitution, as it is written, does not specifically mention or protect the rights of the people, but includes governmental power and surrenders all that remains to the states and people. Alexander Hamilton, author of No Federalist. 84, is afraid that such enumerations, once written explicitly, will then be interpreted as a list of rights only owned by people.

However, Hamilton's opposition to the Bill of Rights is far from universal. Robert Yates, writing under the pseudonyms of Brutus, articulates this point of view in what is called Anti-Federalist. 84, asserts that governments that are not constrained by such laws can easily move into tyranny. The references in The Federalist and in the ratification debate warn the demagog of varieties that through divisive appeals will lead to tyranny. The Federalist begins and ends with this issue. In the last paper, Hamilton offers "a lesson about moderation for all sincere Union lovers, and should place them in their protection against dangerous anarchy, civil war, eternal American alienation from each other, and perhaps military despotism from successful demagogues". This issue is further clarified by the Ninth Amendment.

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Judicial use

Federal judges, when interpreting the Constitution, often use The Federalist Papers as contemporary reports of the intentions of the drafting and ratification actors. They have been applied to issues ranging from the strength of the federal government in foreign affairs (in Hines v. Davidowitz) to the validity of ex post facto law (in decision 1798 Calder v. Bull >, apparently the first decision to mention The Federalist ). In 2000, The Federalist has been cited 291 times in the Supreme Court ruling.

The number of tributes to be given to the Federalist Papers in constitutional interpretation is always somewhat controversial. In early 1819, Chief Justice John Marshall noted in the famous case of McCulloch v. Maryland, "that the opinion expressed by the author of the work should have the right to great respect in explaining the Constitution No honor can be paid to those who exceed their merits but in applying their opinion to cases that may arise in the progress of our government, the right to judge their righteousness must be preserved. "In a letter to Thomas Ritchie in 1821, he declared that" the valid meaning of Instruments must come from the text itself, or if the keys should be searched elsewhere, should not be in the opinion or intent of the Body that plans and proposes the Constitution, but in a sense attached to it by the people in each state convention where they regain all the authority it possesses. "

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Full list

The colors used to highlight the line correspond to the author of the paper.

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Note

References

Adair, Douglass. Fame and The Founding Fathers. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1974. Collection of essays; used here is "The Disputed Federalist Papers".
Frederick Mosteller and David L. Wallace. Author Inferences and Disputes: The Federalist . Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1964. Site Summarized in "Conclusions in Authorship Issues". Journal of the American Statistical Association 58 : 302 (June, 1963), pp. 275-309. (Full text via JSTOR.)
Furtwangler, Albert. Publius Authority: Read The Federalist Papers . Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1984.
Wills, Gary. Explaining America: The Federalist , Garden City, NJ: 1981.

The Federalist Papers

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The Federalist Papers

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