Lithography (from Ancient Greek ????? , litos , meaning 'rock', and ??????? , graphein , meaning 'write') is the original printing method based on imperfections of oil and water. The printing is of stone (lime lithograph) or metal plate with a smooth surface. It was discovered in 1796 by the German writer and actor Alois Senefelder as an inexpensive method for publishing theater work. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork to paper or other appropriate materials.
Lithography initially uses drawings drawn with oil, fat, or wax to the surface of lime lithography plates. The stone is treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, etching stone parts not protected by fat-based images. When the stone is then moistened, these engraved areas hold water; Oil-based inks can then be applied and will be rejected by water, just attached to the original image. The ink will eventually be transferred to a blank paper, producing a printed page. This traditional technique is still used in some graphic arts applications.
In modern lithography, images are made of polymer layers applied to flexible plastic or metal plates. Images can be printed directly from the plates (inverted image orientation), or can be balanced, by moving the image onto flexible sheets (rubber) for printing and publishing.
As a printing technology, lithography differs from intaglio printing (gravure), in which a plate is engraved, scratched, or piled to print a cavity to load the printing ink; and woodblock printing or letterpress printing, where ink is applied to the surface of the letters or drawn images. Today, most types of high volume books and magazines, especially when illustrated in color, are printed with offset lithography, which has been the most common form of printing technology since the 1960s.
The term "photolithography" is related to when a photographic image is used in lithographic printing, whether the image is printed directly from a stone or from a metal plate, as in offset printing. "Photolithography" is used synonymously with "offset printing". Techniques as well as terms were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication and mass production of integrated circuits in the microelectronics industry.
Video Lithography
Prinsip litografi
Lithography uses a simple chemical process to create an image. For example, the positive part of an image is a water-repellent substance ("hydrophobic"), while the negative image is water retention ("hydrophilic"). So, when the plates are inserted into the printing ink and a compatible water mixture, the ink will stick to the positive image and water will clean out the negative image. This allows the flat plate to be used, allowing printing to run longer and more detailed than longer physical printing methods (eg, intaglio printing, letterpress printing).
The lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a fine piece of limestone was used (hence the name "lithography": "lithos" (?????) is an ancient Greek word for stone). After the oil-based image is placed on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water is applied, chewing gum just attached to the non-greasy surface. During printing, water adheres to the surface of the gum arab and is hit by an oily part, while the oily ink used for printing does the opposite.
Limitations of limestone
Lithography works because of the mutual repulsion of oil and water. Images are drawn on the surface of the printing plate with fat or oil-based media (hydrophobic) such as wax crayons, which may be pigmented to make the image visible. Various oil-based media are available, but the durability of the images on the stones depends on the lipid content of the materials used, and its ability to retain water and acid. After drawing the drawing, aqueous solution of arabic gamis, acidified weakly with nitric acid HNO
3 applied to the stone. The function of this solution is to create a hydrophilic layer of calcium nitrate salt, Ca (NOT
3 )
2 , and gum arabic on all non-image surfaces. The gum solution penetrates into the pores of the stone, completely surrounding the original image with a hydrophilic coating that will not accept the printing ink. Using the turpentine lithograph, the printer then removes the excess of oily oily material, but the hydrophobic molecular film remains firmly attached to the stone surface, refusing the arabic gass and water, but ready to receive the oily ink.
When printing, the stone is moistened with water. Naturally water is attracted to the sap and salt layers created by acid leaching. Printing inks based on desiccant oils such as flaxseed oil and varnish filled with pigments are then rolled to the surface. Water expels oily ink but the hydrophobic area left by the original drawing material receives it. When a hydrophobic image is filled with ink, stone and paper run through applied pressure even above surface pressure, transferring ink to paper and from stone.
Senefelder had experimented during the early 19th century with multicolor lithography; in his book of 1819, he predicted that the process would eventually be perfected and used to reproduce the painting. Multi-color printing was introduced by a new process developed by Godefroy Engelmann (France) in 1837 known as chromolithography. A separate stone is used for each color, and a mold passes the press separately for each stone. The main challenge is to keep the image aligned ( in the list ). This method is suitable for images consisting of large areas of flat color, and produces poster design characteristics of this period.
"Lithography, or soft-stone printing, largely took the place of engraving in the production of British commercial maps after about 1852. The process was fast, cheap and had been used to print maps of British troops during the Peninsula War, most of the second-century commercial maps of the second half of the 19th century lithographic and unattractive, though quite accurate. "
Modern lithographic process
High-volume lithography is used today to produce posters, maps, books, newspapers, and packaging - almost all fine stuff, mass produced with prints and graphics on it. Most books, indeed all types of high-volume text, are now printed using offset lithography.
For offset lithography, which depends on the photographic process, flexible aluminum, polyester, mylar or paper plates are used instead of stone tablets. Modern printing plates have a brushed or coarse texture and are covered with photosensitive emulsion. Negative photography of the desired image is placed in contact with the emulsion and plate exposed to ultraviolet light. After development, the emulsion shows the opposite of a negative image, which is a duplicate of the original image (positive). Images on plate emulsions can also be made with direct laser imaging in a CTP (Computer-To-Plate) device known as a platesetter. A positive image is the emulsion remaining after imaging. The non-drawing portion of the emulsion has traditionally been eliminated by chemical processes, although recently plates have become available that do not require such processing.
Plates are affixed to the cylinders on the printing press. Buffer dampers use water, which covers the empty part of the plate but is rejected by the emulsion of the drawing area. Hydrophobic ink, which is rejected by water and attached only to the emulsion of the drawing area, is then applied by the ink roller.
If this image is transferred directly to the paper, it will create a mirror image type and the paper will become too wet. Instead, the plates roll onto a cylinder covered with rubber blankets, which squeeze the water, take ink and move it to paper with uniform pressure. Paper passes between cylinder covers and reverse pressure cylinders or impressions and images are transferred to paper. Since the image was first transferred, or offset to the rubber blanket cylinder, this reproduction method is known as offset lithography or offset printing.
Many innovations and technical improvements have been made in the printing and pressing processes over the years, including multi-unit emphasis development (each containing one printing plate) that can print multi-colored images in a single pass on both sides of the sheet, and suppress the accommodate continuous rolls ( nets ) of paper, known as web presses. Another innovation is the continuous damping system first introduced by Dahlgren, not the old (conventional damping) method still used on longer press machines, using rollers covered with water-absorbing molleton. Increased water flow control to the plate and allows better balance of ink and water. The current damping system includes a "delta or vario effect," which slows the roller in contact with the plate, thus creating a sweeping motion above the ink drawing to remove any dirt known as "hickies".
The lithography printing process is illustrated by this simplified diagram. The press is also called the ink pyramid because the ink is transferred through several layers of rollers with different purposes. Fast lithograph web printing machines are usually used in newspaper production.
The advent of desktop publishing allows types and images to be modified easily on personal computers to eventually be printed by desktop or commercial presses. The development of digital imaging enables print shops to produce negatives for plate manufacture directly from digital input, bypassing intermediate steps to shoot the actual page layout. The development of digital plates during the late 20th century eliminated negative films at once by exposing the direct plates of digital input, a process known as computers for plate printing.
Maps Lithography
Microlithography and nanolithography
Microlithography and nanolithography refers specifically to lithographic pattern methods that are capable of organizing materials on a fine scale. Typically, features smaller than 10 micrometers are considered microlithographic, and features smaller than 100 nanometers are considered nanolithographic. Photolithography is one of these methods, often applied to manufacturing microchip semiconductors. Photolithography is also commonly used for device fabrication of Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Photolithography generally uses pre-fabrication or reticle photomasks as the master from which the final pattern is derived.
Although photolithographic technology is the most commercially advanced form of nanolithography, other techniques are also used. Some, such as electron beam lithography, are capable of producing larger pattern resolutions (sometimes as small as a few nanometers). Electron beam lithography is also commercially important, especially for its use in the manufacture of photomasks. The electron beam lithography as it is usually practiced is a form of maskless lithography, where masks are not required to produce the final pattern. Instead, the last pattern is made directly from the digital representation on the computer, by controlling the electron beam while scanning across the resist-coated substrate. Electron beam lithography has a weakness because it is much slower than photolithography.
In addition to these commercially-established techniques, a large number of microlithographic and nanolithographic technologies are promising to exist or are being developed, including nanoimprint lithography, interference lithography, X-ray lithography, extreme ultraviolet lithography, magnetolithography and scanning litography probes. Some of these new techniques have been successfully used for commercial and small-scale commercial research applications. Load surface-gravity, in fact plasma desorption mass spectrometry can be directly patterned on polar dielectric crystals via a pyroelectric effect, Diffraction lithography.
Lithography as an artistic medium
During the first years of the nineteenth century, lithography had only a limited effect on graphic arts, mainly because technical difficulties still had to be overcome. Germany was the main center of production in this period. Godefroy Engelmann, who moved his press from Mulhouse to Paris in 1816, largely succeeded in solving technical problems, and during lithography the 1820s were adopted by artists such as Delacroix and GÃÆ'  © ricault. London is also a center, and some traces of Gaelard are actually produced there. The Goya in Bordeaux produced its final print series with lithography - The Bulls of Bordeaux in 1828. By mid-century, the initial enthusiasm was somewhat diminished in both countries, although the use of lithography was favored. for commercial applications, including Daumier prints, published in newspapers. Rodolphe Bresdin and Jean-FranÃÆ'§§ois Millet also continue to practice the media in France, and Adolf Menzel in Germany. In 1862 Cadart publishers tried to start lithographic portfolios by various artists, which were unsuccessful but included some prints by Manet. The awakening began in the 1870s, especially in France with artists such as Odilon Redon, Henri Fantin-Latour and Degas producing much of their work in this way. The need for a very limited edition to maintain the present price has materialized, and the media becomes more acceptable.
In the 1890s, color lithography gained success in part due to the emergence of Jules ChÃÆ' Â © ret, known as the father of a modern poster, whose work continues to inspire a new generation of poster designers and painters, notably Toulouse-Lautrec , and former student of ChÃÆ' Â © ret, Georges de Feure. In 1900 the media in color and monotone was the accepted part of the graphic arts.
During the 20th century, a group of artists, including Braque, Calder, Chagall, Dufy, LÃÆ' Â © ger, Matisse, MirÃÆ'³, and Picasso, rediscovered the undeveloped lithography artography thanks to the Mourlot Studios, also known as Atelier Mourlot , a Paris printing company founded in 1852 by the Mourlot family. The Atelier Mourlot was originally specialized in wallpaper printing; but that changed when the founder's grandson, Fernand Mourlot, invited a number of 20th century artists to explore the complexity of fine art printing. Mourlot encourages painters to work directly on the lithographic stone to create original artwork that can then be carried out under the direction of the master printers in small editions. The combination of modern artists and master printers produces lithographs used as posters to promote the work of artists.
Grant Wood, George Bellows, Alphonse Mucha, Max Kahn, Pablo Picasso, Eleanor Coen, Jasper Johns, David Hockney, Susan Dorothea White, and Robert Rauschenberg are some of the artists who have produced most of their prints in the media. M. Escher is considered a lithographer, and many of his prints are made using this process. More than any other graphic art technique, printers in lithography still rely heavily on access to good printers, and media development has been heavily influenced by when and where it has been established.
As a special form of lithography, the serilith process is sometimes used. Serilith is the original mixed media mold created in a process whereby an artist uses lithograph and serigraf process. The farewell to both processes is hand drawn by the artist. Serilith techniques are used primarily to create limited print editions of fine arts.
Gallery
See also
- Block printing
- Color printing
- Etching
- Flexibility
- German inventor and inventor
- The history of graphic design
- Letterpress printing
- Garisografi
- Lithography uses MeV ions - Proton beam writing
- Photochrom
- The inventor Theodore Regensteiner from the four-color lithographic press
- Rotogravure
- Seriolithograph
- Stencil lithography
- Stereolithography
- Typography
References
External links
- Twyman, Michael. Initial Lithography Book . Pinner, Middlesex: Private Libraries Association, 1990
- Museum of Modern Art information on printing techniques and print samples
- The discovery of lithography, Aloys Senefelder, (Eng trans. 1911) (facsimile traceable at Georgia University Library; DjVu and layered PDF format)
- Theo De Smedt website, author of "What is lithography"
- Extensive information about HonorÃÆ'Â Daumier and his life and work, including all his lithographs
- Digital work catalog up to 4000 lithographs and 1,000 wood sculptures
- A detailed examination of the processes involved in the creation of lithographic scientific illustrations in the 19th century
- Nederlands Steendrukmuseum
- Delacroix's Faust lithograph at Davison Art Center, Wesleyan University
- A brief historical summary of lithography. University of Delaware Library. Includes an excerpt for a 19th century book using early lithographic illustrations.
- Philadelphia on Stone: The First Fifty Years of Commercial Lithography in Philadelphia. Philadelphia Library Company. Provides a historic overview of commercial commerce in Philadelphia and links to a biographical dictionary of over 500 Philadelphia lithographers and a catalog of over 1,300 lithographs documenting Philadelphia.
- Prints & amp; People: A Social History of Printed Pictures, an exhibit catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), containing material about lithography
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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