Writing is a human communication medium that represents language and emotion with signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement to speak or speak the language. Writing is not a language, but a tool used to make the language read. In a language system, writing depends on many structures similar to speech, such as vocabulary, grammar, and semantics, with additional dependence on sign systems or symbols. The result of writing is called text , and the recipient of the text is called reader . Motivation for writing includes publication, storytelling, correspondence, recording and diary. Writing has been instrumental in safeguarding history, maintaining culture, disseminating knowledge through the media and establishing a legal system.
As human society emerges, the development of writing is driven by pragmatic urgency such as exchanging information, maintaining financial accounts, codifying laws and recording history. Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia surpasses human memory, and writing becomes a method of recording and presenting more reliable transactions in permanent form. Both in ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing may have evolved through calendars and political needs to record historical and environmental events.
Video Writing
Means to record information
HG Wells argues that writing has the ability to "put the covenant, the law, the command in the record." It makes the growth of the states bigger than may be declared by the old city, which makes the consciousness of history as continuous as possible.the command of the priest or king and his seal can go far beyond his vision and his voice and be safe from his death ".
Writing system
The main writing system - the writing method - is broadly divided into five categories: logography, syllables, alphabetics, featural, and ideographic (symbols for ideas). The sixth category, pictography, does not adequately represent its own language, but often forms the core of logography.
Logographies
A logogram is a written character that represents a word or morpheme. A large number of logograms are required to write Chinese, pointed, and Mayan characters, where glyphs can stand for morphemes, syllables, or both - ("logoconsonantal" in the case of hieroglyphs). Many logograms have an ideographic component ("radical" Chinese, hieroglyphic "determinant"). For example, in Maya, the flying machine for "fins", pronounced "ka", is also used to represent the syllable "ka" whenever the logogram pronunciation needs to be indicated, or when there is no logogram. In Chinese, about 90% of characters are semantic (so-called) elements called radical with existing characters to show the pronunciation, called phonetic . However, such phonetic elements complement the logographic elements, not the other way around.
The main logographical system used today is Chinese characters, used with some modifications to various Chinese or Japanese dialects, dialects, and occasionally in Korea despite the fact that in South Korea and North Korea, the Hangul Phonetic system is primarily used.
Glossary
A syllable is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables. A flying machine in a syllable usually represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel only, although in some more complex syllabic scripts (such as consonants-consonants, or consonant-vowel consonants) may have special glyphs. Phonetic-related syllables are not necessarily indicated in the text. For example, the syllable "ka" may not look like the syllable "ki", nor the syllable with the same vowel is not the same.
Silabary is best suited for languages ​​with relatively simple syllabic structures, such as Japanese. Other languages ​​that use syllable writing include Linear B scripts for Mycenaean Greek; Cherokee; Njj, an English-language creole from Suriname; and the Vai Liberia script. Most logographical systems have strong syllable components. Ethiopic, though technically an abugida, has combined consonants and vowels together to the point where it studies as if it were a syllable.
Alphabet
The alphabet is a set of symbols, each of which represents or historically represents the language phoneme. In a perfect phonological alphabet, phonemes and letters will fit perfectly in two directions: a writer can predict the spelling of a given word pronunciation, and a speaker can predict the pronunciation of a given word.
Because languages ​​often evolve separately from their writing systems, and the writing system has been borrowed for languages ​​not designed for them, the rate at which the letters of the alphabet relate to the phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even in one language language.
Abjads
In most Middle Eastern writing systems, it is usually only a consonant of a written word, although vowels may be indicated by the addition of diacritical marks. The writing system is based primarily on marking consonant phonemes only, dates back to the hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt. Such a system is called abjads , derived from the Arabic word for "alphabet".
Abugidas
In most of the Indian and Southeast Asian alphabets, vowels are shown through diacritics or modifications of consonant form. This is called abugidas . Some abugids, such as Ethiopic and Cree, are studied by children as syllables, and are often called "syllables". However, unlike the correct syllables, there is no independent flying machine for every syllable.
Sometimes the term "alphabet" is restricted to systems with separate letters for consonants and vowels, such as the Latin alphabet, although abugidas and abjads can also be accepted as alphabets. Because of this usage, Greece is often regarded as the first alphabet.
Featural Scripts
A featural script tells the building blocks of phonemes that make up the language. For example, all sounds spoken with lips ("labial" sound) may have some of the same elements. In the Latin alphabet, this does not happen purposely with the letters "b" and "p"; However, the labial "m" is completely different, and the similar "q" and "d" appear labial. In Korea hangul, however, all four labial consonants are based on the same basic element, but in practice, Korea is studied by children as a regular alphabet, and featural elements tend to pass unnoticed.
Another feature script is SignWriting, the most popular writing system for many sign language, in which the shape and movement of hands and faces are represented in an iconic manner. The featural script is also common in fictitious or created systems, such as J.R.R. Tolkien Tengwar.
The historical significance of the writing system
Historians describe the sharp distinction between prehistory and history, with a history determined by the appearance of writing. Cave paintings and petroglyphs of prehistoric societies can be regarded as writing precursors, but they are not considered correct writing because they do not represent language directly.
The writing system evolves and changes based on the needs of the people who use it. Sometimes the shape, orientation, and meaning of individual signs change over time. By searching for script development, it's possible to learn about the needs of people using scripts and how scripts change over time.
Tools and materials
Many tools and writing materials used throughout history include stone tablets, clay tablets, bamboo blades, papyrus, wax tablets, vellum, parchments, papers, copper plates, styluses, fur pens, ink brushes, pencils, pens, and many lithographic styles. The Inca tribe uses a knot called quipu (or khipu) to keep notes.
Typewriters and various forms of word processing then became widespread stationery, and various studies have compared the ways in which authors framed the writing experience with tools as compared to pens or pencils.
Maps Writing
History
Neolithic Posts
By definition, modern historical practices begin with written records. Proof of human culture without writing is a prehistoric field. The Dispilio Tablet (Greek) and the T rt'ria tablet (Romania), which has been carbon dated to the 6th millennium BC, is the latest discovery of the earliest known neolithic writings.
Mesopotamia
While neolithic writing is the topic of current research, conventional history assumes that the first writing process evolved from economic needs in the ancient Near East. Writing is likely to begin as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, requiring reliable means of transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration overcame the power of memory, and writing became a method of recording and presenting more reliable transactions in permanent form.
Archaeologist Denise Schmandt-Besserat determines the relationship between the previously unpomaded "clay" clay, the oldest found in the Zagros region of Iran, and the first known writing, Mesopotamia cuneiform. In about 8000 BC, Mesopotamians began using clay tokens to count their agricultural and artificial items. Then they start putting these tokens in large hollow clay containers (bulls, or rounded envelopes) which are then sealed. The quantity of tokens in each container is finally expressed with impressive, on the surface of the container, one image for each instance of the token in it. They then distributed their tokens, relying only on symbols for tokens, drawn on the surface of clay. To avoid creating an image for each instance of the same object (for example: 100 cap images to represent 100 caps), they 'calculate' the object by using various small marks. In this way Sumeria adds "a system for counting objects to their new symbol system so".
The original Mesopotamian writing system (believed to be the oldest in the world) originated around 3600 BC from this method of storage. At the end of the 4th millennium BC, Mesopotamia used a triangular-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay to record numbers. The system is gradually added by using a sharp stylus to show what is being calculated using pictographs. Spherical-stylus and sharp-stylus writing was gradually replaced by writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term cuneiform), initially only for logograms, but in the 29th century BC also for phonetic elements. Around 2700 BC, pointed start representing the Sumerian syllables spoken. Around that time, Mesopotamia cuneiform became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. The text was adapted to other Mesopotamian languages, Eastern Semitic Akitara (Assyria and Babylon) about 2600 BC, and later to others such as Elamite, Hattian, Hurrian and Hittite. Similar manuscripts in appearance to this writing system include those for Ugarit and Persian Tua. With the adoption of Aramaic as 'lingua franca' of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-609 BC), Ancient Aramaic was also adapted into the Mesopotamian pakuiform. The last nail script in Akkadian is found so far since the 1st century.
Elamite Scripts
Over the centuries, three different Elamite scripts were developed. Proto-Elamite is the oldest known writing system from Iran. Only used for a short time (around 3200-2900 BC), clay tablets with Proto-Elamite inscriptions have been found in various locations throughout Iran. Proto-Elamite manuscripts allegedly have been developed from scratch (proto-cuneiform). The Proto-Elamite manuscript consists of more than 1,000 marks and is considered partly logographical.
Linear Elamite is a proven writing system in several monumental inscriptions in Iran. It was used for a very short period during the last quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. It is often claimed that Linear Elamite is a syllabic writing system derived from Proto-Elamite, although this can not be proved because Linear-Elamite has not been described. Some experts have tried to decipher the manuscript, especially Walther Hinz and Piero Meriggi.
The elusive manuscripts of Elam were used from around 2500 to 331 BC, and adapted from Akkadian characters. Elamite cuneiform script consists of about 130 symbols, much less than most other cuneiform scripts.
Crete and Greek script
Crete hieroglyphs are found in Cretaceous artifacts (beginning to mid-millennium BC, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A of MM IIA at the earliest). Linear B, the writing system of Mycenaean Greece, has been solved while Linear A has not been solved. The geographical order and distribution of the three overlapping, but different, writing systems can be summarized as follows: Cretan hieroglyphs are used in Crete from c. 1625 to 1500 BC; Linear A is used in the Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), and the Greek mainland (Laconia) of c. 18th century to 1450 BC; and Linear B is used in Crete (Knossos), and land (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) of c. 1375 to 1200 BC.
China
The earliest examples of writings survive in China - inscriptions on so-called "oracle bones", tortoise plastrons and cattle scapula used for divination - dates from about 1200 BC in the late Shang Dynasty. A small number of bronze inscriptions from the same period also survived. Historians have found that the type of media used has an effect on what is written by it and how it is used.
In 2003, archaeologists reported the discovery of insulated turtle engraving dating from the 7th millennium BC, but whether these symbols were related to the characters of the oracle-bone script were then debated.
Egypt
The earliest known hieroglyphic inscriptions are the Narmer Palette, dating c. 3200 BC, and some new inventions that may be slightly older, although the glyph is based on a tradition that is older than the artistically written. Hieroglyphic manuscripts are logos with phonetic additions that include an effective alphabet.
Writing is very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy is concentrated among the elite of the educated scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds are allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple authorities, pharaohs, and the military. The hieroglyph system is always difficult to learn, but in the later centuries it was deliberately made even more, since it retained the status of scribe.
The world's oldest alphabet appears to have been developed by Canaanite miners in the Sinai desert around the mid-19th century BC. About 30 crude inscriptions have been found on the Egyptian mining site of the mountains known as Serabit el-Khadem. This site is also home to the Hathor temple, "Nyonya turquoise". Later, two-line inscriptions have also been found at Wadi el-Hol in Central Egypt. Based on the hieroglyphic prototype, but also including completely new symbols, each sign seems to stand for consonants rather than the word: the basis of the alphabetic system. It was not until the 12th century until 9, however, the alphabet holds and becomes widely used.
Valley Indus
The script indus refers to the short string of symbols associated with the Indus Valley Civilization (which spans modern Pakistan and North India) used between 2600 and 1900 BC. Despite many attempts at parsing and claiming, it has not been described. The term 'Indus script' is mainly applied to that used in the mature Harapan phases, which may have evolved from some of the marks found in early Harappa after 3500 BC, followed by a ripe Harappan manuscript. The manuscripts are written from right to left, and sometimes follow the boustrophedonic style. Since the number of major signs is about 400-600, in the middle between a typical logographic script and syllable, many experts accept a script to be a syllabic logo (usually a tribal script has about 50-100 marks whereas a logographic script has an amount which is very big from the principal). signs). Some scholars argue that structural analysis suggests that the agglutinative language underlies the manuscript.
Central Asia
Archaeologists have recently discovered that there is a civilization in Central Asia using writing c. 2000 BC. Excavations near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, reveal an inscription on a rock used as a seal.
The writing system and Phoenician descent
The Proto-Sinaitic manuscript, in which Proto-Canaan is believed to have been first written, was demonstrated as far back as the 19th century BC. The writing system of Phoenicians was adapted from the Proto-Canaan text before the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed principles that represent the phonetic information of Hieratic, Cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs. This writing system is a strange kind of syllable where only the consonants are represented. The text was adapted by the Greeks, who adapted certain consonant signs to represent their vowels. The Cumae Alphabet, a variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet and Runes. Other descendants of the Greek alphabet include Cyrillic, used to write Bulgarian, Russian and Serbian, among others. The Phoenician system is also adapted into the Aramaic text, from which the Hebrew and Arabic scripts are derived.
The Tifinagh script (Berber language) is derived from the Libyco-Berber script, which is assumed to be from Phoenician origin.
Mesoamerica
A 3,000-year-old stone slab, known as the Cascajal Block, is found in the Mexican state of Veracruz and is the oldest manuscript example in the Western Hemisphere, preceding the oldest Zapotec writing about 500 years. Expected as Olmec.
From some pre-Columbus scripts in Mesoamerica, which seems to be best developed, and the only thing to be deciphered, is the Maya script. Early inscriptions were identified, Mayan dates to the 3rd century BC. The Maya writing uses a logogram equipped with a set of syllabic glyphs, which are somewhat similar to those of modern Japanese writing.
South America
The Incas do not have any known manuscripts. The quipu system for recording information - based on a node tied to one or more connected cables - was used for inventory and accounting purposes and could not encode textual information.
Dacia
Three stone slabs were discovered by Romanian archaeologist Nicolae Vlassa, in the mid-20th century (1961) in TÃ ¢ rt? Ria (now Alba County, Transylvania), Romania, the ancient land of Dacia, is populated by the Dacians, which is a population that may be associated with Getaes and Thracian. One sheet contains four groups of pictographs divided by lines. Some characters are also found in Ancient Greece, as well as in Phoenician, Etruscan, Old Italic and Iberian. The origins and timing of the text were disputed, as there was no precise evidence there, the plates were not able to date carbon, because of the ill-treatment of the Cluj museum. There is an indirect carbon date found on the skeleton found near the slab, which validated the period 5300-5500 BC.
Importance of modern
In the 21st century, writing has become an important part of everyday life because technology has connected individuals from all over the world through systems such as e-mail and social media. Literacy has become increasingly important as a success factor in the modern world. In the United States, literacy is necessary for most jobs, and many programs are available to help children and adults improve their literacy skills. For example, the emergence of a writing center and public literacy council aims to help students and community members sharpen their writing skills. These resources, and more, reach across different age groups to offer a better understanding of the language of individual individuals and how to express themselves through writing in order to improve their socioeconomic status.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
0 Comments